Written by Danielle Fuller The Understudied Psychodynamic Framework of the Enneagram Theoretical frameworks are rampant in psychology such as the Big Five Theory of Personality and Attachment Theory, each serving as a guide to understanding the individual differences and unconscious drivers that lead each of us to behave uniquely. None of these are perfect, and no one is suggesting there are strictly four types of people in the world categorised only by attachment. A framework is just that - a scaffolding that makes complex topics more accessible for consumption and discussion. One psychodynamic framework, the Enneagram, deserves more attention in the realm of psychology. Despite its (unfitting) reputation as a trendy pseudoscience, the Enneagram predates modern psychology, with roots dating back over two thousand years in various religions and studies (e.g., Judaism, Islam, Christianity, philosophy, mathematics, and metaphysics). At its core lies the basic principle of psychodynamics: understanding the psychological roots of emotional suffering (Shedler, 2010). In a world where academia is often inaccessible to the layperson – the very individuals whose lives we as psychologists are focused on bettering – we should prioritise frameworks that can not only be studied in the lab but understood and utilised by society for healing and self-growth. The Enneagram has an accessible foundation in place, and further research has the potential to usher it in as the newest addition to the psychodynamic therapist’s toolbox. What is the Enneagram? Composed of nine Types represented as One through Nine, the Enneagram is an integrated framework of personality that accounts for situational aspects of being such as self-awareness, mental health, and reactionary nuance in periods of stress and growth. These Types are arranged in an interconnected circle, each representing a generalised understanding of the world that drives that Type's desires, fears, and motivations. Underpinning each is an internalised childhood message about how they are valued by others:
How is the Enneagram Different From Other Personality Models? Unlike many personality frameworks focused on traits and situational behaviour (see: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, or MBTI), the Enneagram is rooted in motivation. To demonstrate why trait models are problematic, let’s consider the MBTI question “You do not usually initiate conversations,” meant to determine if the person is an ‘I’ (introvert) or an ‘E’ (extrovert). Would this answer change in the context of family life, with friends, with classmates, or with co-workers? Does your answer differ at your dream job versus a job you hate; if you’re feeling ill or healthy; if you’re surrounded by social butterflies or wallflowers? For some, responses vary dramatically based on mindset or environment. So how dependable can a singular test result be? This is a key difference for the Enneagram: those who study it in depth abhor testing for Type and advocate endlessly for self-exploratory identification. Just as no psychodynamic therapists rely on testing to determine how a client’s paternal relationship has shaped them in adulthood, the Enneagram is ill-suited for the simplicity of a Likert scale measuring outward patterns. Someone’s core will drive behaviours, but behaviours alone do not define someone’s core. This psychoanalytic approach to human understanding not only makes it difficult to objectively assign a Type, it also makes qualitative research extremely difficult. How do we, as scientists, study an individual’s true self when only they hold the key and it’s buried in their core? The State of Research: A Mixed yet Nearly-Empty Bag Enneagram research is limited and mixed yet has begun to grow in Western cultures. A systematic literature review by Hook et al. (2020) points out that factor analyses typically find fewer than nine types and cautions clinicians that scientific evidence is lacking. However, they also acknowledge its effectiveness for personal growth, which is backed by more recent research on the Enneagram’s psychodynamic utility for connecting the conscious and unconscious minds (Kam, 2022). Research also shows it to be an effective training tool for self-development in organisational settings (Sutton et al., 2013), teamwork and general learning in medical school cohorts (Blose, 2023), and the emotional intelligence of college student leaders (Weafer, 2021). Eastern cultures have found similarly promising findings, as a recent meta-analysis out of South Korea considered the effect Enneagram training had on parenting and found moderate-to-large effect sizes in all areas studied, the largest being 0.72 for coping with parental stress (Lee, 2023). A recent study highlighted the complexity of scientific Enneagram research. The study’s analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data revealed two radically different stories: while the latter showed no significant results, the qualitative data was rife with evidence of significant personal growth (Weafer, 2021). Yes, the study was a student thesis, but the underlying question remains: how do we resolve contradicting findings of the Enneagram’s qualitative benefit and quantitative insignificance? Arguing that factor analysis doesn’t support the Enneagram as a psychological tool disregards qualitative analysis as a valid research methodology; there is clearly a beneficial nature at play with the Enneagram, and it deserves more exploratory research to pinpoint exactly what that is. Enneagram: A Lexicon for Self-Expression Sometimes the key to effective communication of one’s deepest self isn’t a lack of self-understanding but lack of the proper words or models to do so. Kanzi, the bonobo who dialogues with humans using lexicons, lacks the ability to vocally communicate, yet was given the ability to express inner wants, needs, feelings, and emotions when provided with a wall of icons and a patient teacher. While he cannot say, “I’m sad,” he’s able to communicate the sentiment by pointing to something that conveys the thought for which he lacks words. We humans aren’t so dissimilar from Kanzi. We are notoriously poor at identifying our inner thoughts and feelings – even to ourselves. The journey to self-understanding is tough, and sometimes, like with Kanzi, pre-existing schemas we can point to and say, “That, right there, reflects the part of me I couldn’t otherwise articulate,” make all the difference. The Enneagram has the ability to be just that, going past surface-level behaviours and exposing the nuances of how our core worldviews impact all aspects of existence. Whether used in companies to build teams, in clinical settings to help patients identify deep-seeded realities of themselves, or in research to explore further than behaviourism alone allows, the Enneagram’s proven potential for human betterment merits a spot at the psychological table. References Blose, T. M., Yeates, A. C., Som, M, Murray, K. A., Vassar, M., & Stroup, J. (2023). The Enneagram and its application in medical education. Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, 36(1), 54-58, https://doi.org/10.1080/08998280.2022.2132591 Hook, J. N., Hall, T. W., Davis, D. E., Van Tongeren, D. R., & Conner, M. K. (2021). The Enneagram: A systematic review of the literature and directions for future research. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 77(4), 865–883. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23097 Kam, C. (2022). Enhancing Enneagram therapy with contemporary research on the conscious and unconscious mind. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-022-09685-5 Lee, N. (2023). A study on the effects of Enneagram parent education program through meta-analysis. Asia Couns. Coach, 5(1), 48-62. https://doi.org/10.47018/accr.2023.5.1.48 Shedler J. (2010). The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy. The American Psychologist, 65(2), 98–109. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018378 Sutton, A., Allinson, C., & Williams, H. M. (2013). Personality type and work-related outcomes: An exploratory application of the Enneagram model. European Management Journal, 31(3), 234–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2012.12.004 Weafer, D. (2021). Leadership, Emotional Intelligence, and the Enneagram: A Study of the Effects of Enneagram Training on College Student Leaders. TopSCHOLAR®. https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/stu_hon_theses/943
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Written by Elia Müller Behavioural studies have shown that if pigeons are presented with a food source, that reliably provides them with pellets when they peck at the source, they will eventually grow accustomed to this and stop pecking. If, however, the food source releases pellets intermittently—in a way that seems random and unrelated to the amount of pecking—the pigeons peck relentlessly and do not grow bored or accustomed to the food source (Catania et al., 1977). This presents a unique question: Why do pigeons seem so enthralled by a food source that is less reliable? And, maybe more interestingly, what does this have to do with human psychology? Pigeons and humans alike are hardwired with pattern-seeking mechanisms that enable them to build mental models of the way the world works (though, obviously, humans have slightly more complex mental models than pigeons). These models help us predict what may happen in certain situations, allowing us to prepare our responses in advance. An example of this might be identifying a pattern of behaviour, such as your parent generally being more irritable on Mondays. Based on the pattern, you could predict that they will be more irritable on any given Monday, allowing you to adjust your behaviour to avoid getting into an argument. This pattern-finding ability was listed in Simon’s (1990) article titled “Invariants of Human Behavior”, where it was described as “an important component of human intelligence” (p. 10). So, given that it is so beneficial and natural for humans to find patterns, we might be able to understand why we become fascinated (and sometimes obsessed with or addicted to) situations or things that seem to be totally random—the apparent unpredictability provides our pattern-centric brains with a challenge that we refuse to abandon. In the following sections, I will explore further why unpredictable situations are so thrilling to us, specifically with reference to music and humour. I will also explore situations in which our fascination with unpredictability can be harmful, for example leading to addictions or harmful relationships with others. The Link Between Unpredictability and Enjoyment Without getting too technical about things, our learning process is linked with our brain’s reward system (which makes us feel contentment or enjoyment). We associate certain stimuli with desirable or positive outcomes (Lewis et al., 2021) and begin predicting that a positive outcome will occur when the stimulus is present. Then, even before we witness the outcome of the stimulus, our brain is rewarded for having made this prediction (Veissière & Stendel, 2018). This effect of pre-emptive rewards decreases when our predictions are reliably met, making things that are generally unpredictable (but not completely random) the most rewarding phenomena to the brain. Our brain keeps convincing itself that it is about to find a pattern every time it makes a correct prediction, which keeps it going through all the times it fails to predict what comes next. This tendency becomes interesting when you examine how pervasive unpredictability is in the things that entertain us. I have decided to demonstrate this using the example of jokes and music. Goatly (2017) has explained that what makes jokes funny is the violation of what is known as our “lexical priming”. Essentially, every time we hear a word, our brain activates a kind of mind map of that word and any concepts related to it. This helps us predict what someone might be about to say, again allowing us to prepare for what comes next. However, jokes are structured to intentionally go against our lexical priming. An example of this might be the following joke: Q: Which of the following words is the odd one out: greed, anger, malice, and depression? A: And Our expectation is violated because “and” is not a very meaningful word, so we were not “primed” to expect it as an answer to the question in the joke. What follows is the funny realisation that our prediction for the answer failed. This same phenomenon of unpredictable stimuli being enjoyable to us reappears in music. Gold et al. (2019) demonstrated that the most enjoyable pieces of music contain some degree of uncertainty, but only to the extent that we are able to form some sort of predictions about what might come next—fully random noise is hardly enjoyable. The Darker Aspects of Unpredictability: Addiction and Unhealthy Relationship Dynamics Unfortunately, our brain’s propensity to attempt to find patterns in unpredictable situations can lead to addictions that can upend people’s lives. An example of this is gambling addictions. Slot machines are designed to provide people with the equivalent of the pigeons’ unpredictable feeding machine. Just as the pigeons keep pecking, predicting that they might be rewarded with food, those addicted to gambling keep on pulling the lever of the slot machines, predicting that they might be rewarded with a win. Ladouceur (2004) reported that those with gambling issues even verbalised their insistence on being able to predict a win by saying things like, “The machine is due; I need to continue.” He elaborated that those addicted to gambling seem to have the incorrect belief that “the game’s outcome can be predicted and controlled” (p. 501). Perhaps an even more concerning area of our lives where we search for predictable patterns in unpredictable situations is our relationships with other people. Veissière and Stendel (2018) found that the type of reward promised in these types of unpredictable situations worsens our brain’s search for patterns: If our predictions succeed, the rewards are deeply social, as opposed to the money we are rewarded with in slot machines. Further, Veissière and Stendel emphasise that our need for human connections is an old evolutionary drive, and that this makes our need to predict the behaviour of others (even if it may be unpredictable) even more pressing. This means that having a relationship with a person whose behaviour is highly unpredictable can easily become addictive, because we 1) crave finding patterns where there are none, and 2) the stakes are raised by our desire to have interpersonal relationships. However, research suggests that “relational certainty” (essentially the opposite of having an unpredictable and volatile relationship) increased people’s happiness in their romantic relationships (Knobloch & Solomon, 2003). This presents us with a pressing dilemma that is tragically worsened by the way in which the media presents blueprints for relationships (especially romantic ones). I read through the plots of a random selection of movies from a list of the most highly rated romantic comedies in Hollywood (Bagusdriantama, 2013), and they contained many tropes that romanticise plotlines where characters frequently change their minds about their partners, leave steady partners for the sake of unreliable alternatives, and interrupt an endless amount of wedding ceremonies. How are we to opt for stable relationships when we become hooked on unpredictability, and this state of uncertainty is portrayed as the ideal by the media? Conclusion We have seen that our pattern-oriented minds are uniquely gripped by unpredictable data. This phenomenon both helps us understand various forms of entertainment—such as music and humour — as well as shedding light on darker aspects of the human experience—such as addiction and unstable relationships. The take-away I suggest would be simply to be aware of the situations that may entrap us, getting stuck searching for a pattern where there is none. We might thereby be able to avoid torturing ourselves, playing a guessing game over whether our emotionally unavailable friends or partners will act in a kind or distant manner. And lastly, make unexpected jokes! References Bagusdriantama, A. (2013, June 17). The best rom-com movies of all time. IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/list/ls053605210/ Catania, A. C., Matthews, T. J., Silverman, P. J., & Yohalem, R. (1977). Yoked variable-ratio and variable-interval responding in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 28(2), 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1977.28-155 Goatly, A. (2017). Lexical priming in humorous discourse. The European Journal of Humour Research, 5(1), 52–68. https://doi.org/10.7592/ejhr2017.5.1.goatly Gold, B. P., Pearce, M. T., Mas-Herrero, E., Dagher, A., & Zatorre, R. J. (2019). Predictability and uncertainty in the pleasure of music: A reward for learning? The Journal of Neuroscience, 39(47), 9397–9409. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.0428-19.2019 Knobloch, L. K., & Solomon, D. H. (2003). Responses to changes in relational uncertainty within dating relationships: Emotions and communication strategies. Communication Studies, 54(3), 282–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510970309363287 Ladouceur, R. (2004). Gambling: The hidden addiction. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 49(8), 501–503. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370404900801 Lewis, R. G., Florio, E., Punzo, D., & Borrelli, E. (2021). The brain’s reward system in health and disease. In Engmann, O. & Brancaccio, M. (Eds). Advances in experimental medicine and biology (Vol. 1344, pp. 57-69). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81147-1_4 Simon, H. A. (1990). Invariants of Human Behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 41(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.000245 Veissière, S. P., & Stendel, M. (2018). Hypernatural Monitoring: A social rehearsal account of smartphone addiction. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00141 |