Written by Greg Zhao “The best way to spread Christmas cheer is singing loud for all to hear.”, said Buddy the Elf. As one of the most well-known Christmas movies, Elf (2003) features Buddy (Will Farrell) as an orphan that was adopted by Arctic elves. Due to a relationship breakdown between his birth father and mother, he was raised in an orphanage run by a group of nuns. During Santa’s visit to the orphanage on Christmas Eve, Buddy saw a teddy bear from the opening of Santa’s sack (of presents). He then escaped his crib to get the bear and was mistakenly taken back to the North Pole by Santa. At Santa’s workshop, Buddy was discovered and given his name by a group of elves. He was later adopted by an elder elf. Later in Buddy’s life, he found out about his human heritage and decided to venture to New York City to find his birth father. Being an orphan that was raised by essentially a different species makes Buddy psychoanalytically, a curious case. I will analyse the development of Buddy the elf and bring you all some Christmas cheer the Freudian way. Buddy’s early childhood experience draws many connections with his adult behaviours. Being abandoned and frequently having his caretaker changed, Buddy has had a troublesome oral stage (0~18 months old), which has led to an oral fixation. Typical symptoms of an oral fixation are problems with eating, drinking, smoking, etc., as at this stage the infant depends greatly on the caretaker (whose primary responsibilities include feeding them), and they develop a sense of trust and comfort through oral stimulation. The symptom of Buddy’s oral fixation shows through his disorderly eating. Those who have seen the movie are probably left astounded by the scene in which Buddy seasons his Bolognese by drenching it with syrup and candies. One might argue that syrup and candies are staples in an elf’s diet (as illustrated in the movie), and Buddy is just having his five-a-day. However, in a later scene where Buddy starts working in the mailroom, he drank a whole bottle of “syrup” and started acting intoxicated. If the Elf’s five-a-day includes getting intoxicated on the job, I’d be more than eager to change my diet, but if not, Buddy’s syrup habit is a waving red flag of a deep-seated fixation on the oral stage. From another angle, eating disorder expert Margo D. Melanie found connections between father hunger (paternal absence) and eating disorders in later life. Since Buddy’s infancy was spent in an orphanage exclusively run by nuns, we can also explain Buddy’s disorderly eating by the lack of a father figure in his early years. For those who have seen the movie, it is clear that Buddy is quite a people-pleaser. This is apparent when he visits his dad’s office in the Empire State Building, he spends his visit excessively complimenting and thanking his dad's colleagues. I was curious as to what made Buddy such a people-pleaser because he certainly didn’t inherit it from his birth father (whose demeanour is often the opposite of people-pleasing). Since there isn’t much information on his birth mother, Buddy’s environment as an orphan in the North Pole became my primary suspect. This is not to say that being a people-pleaser always indicates disorderly development, as there are many potential root causes of such behaviour. Buddy could be a genuinely compassionate person, and for the sake of not ruining Christmas, I reckon many would choose to believe that. However, from the scene in which Buddy spent the whole night decorating Gimbels (a department store) so that it can look “perfect” when Santa visits, I am compelled to put his striving for perfection together with his people-pleasing behaviour, as both could signify a low sense of self-worth. According to Psychoanalytic theory, the root cause of low self-worth is a harsh superego, as a harsh superego is extra judgmental and extra intolerant of mistakes. It might come as a surprise that Buddy’s childhood development would foster a harsh superego. After all, the land ruled by the kind and loving Santa Claus must be filled with nothing but pure joy. At the risk of being the Grinch, I must say that perhaps Santa Claus is the root of many of Buddy’s issues. However, if you take a closer look, reality begs to differ. From all the movies and folklore, we can observe that since the entire population of the North Pole not only work for Santa but also sees him as their fatherly spiritual figure for generations, Santa’s values and personality traits must seep deeply into the depths of every Arctic elf’s psyche. This begs the question: What is Santa really like? I believe he is a man with an unbreakable resolution, as that is what it takes for him to do his worldwide delivery, Amazon Prime style, at the same time every year, without fail. Contrary to popular belief, I am convinced Santa is not entirely a compassionate man. It takes a fiercely decisive and ultimately judgmental man to put the entire earth’s population into two lists: naughty or nice. Santa is the sole entity that decides what constitutesbeing naughty or nice, and for him to be compassionate enough to quietly leave his gift under the Christmas tree, one must adhere to his values and beliefs. Perhaps with some collaboration with the KGB, it’s possible for Santa to know if you have been “bad or good”; but for us to say, “He knows when you are sleeping, he knows you are awake”, Santa must be an entity that is an integral part of yourself. Otherwise, one can fake being asleep, and the lyrics will have to be changed to “he’s pretty sure you are sleeping.” We all have an internal cognitive entity that is resolute, conscientious, judgemental, and all-knowing. It is called the superego. Santa Clause, like many other figures in myths and folklore, is the external representation of our superego. Santa-the embodiment of a harsh superego-is the spiritual leader and fatherly figure to Buddy. At the risk of being the Grinch, I must say that perhaps Santa Claus is the root of many of Buddy’s issues. For a film to be deemed excellent, it is not solely dependent on cool visuals and sound designs. The development of the characters must be coherent with their background story, and when it does, we subconsciously know that the screenplay makes psychological sense. Films like The Godfather, Pulp Fiction, Shutter Island, etc. are often considered cinematic canons because the subtle psychological movements of the characters make sense. My analysis of Buddy the Elf demonstrates that the movie Elf is one that can be considered highly regarded. But you don’t need to read my article to know it—its consistent popularity even two decades after its premiere speaks for itself. I do hope I didn’t ruin the movie for you. Merry Christmas in July!
0 Comments
Written by Ashwati Ramaswamy Dissociative Identity Disorder (formerly known as Multiple Personality Disorder) has a reputation for being a mysterious territory. With its representation in the media and lack of awareness in the general population, it is often misunderstood. Its prevalence rate (frequency within a population) globally is 1.5%, being considered a rare disorder (Mitra and Jain, 2022). However, beyond just DID, numerous other disorders stem from the condition of dissociation. Dissociative disorders are often misdiagnosed and require long and tedious assessments for an accurate diagnosis (Mychailyszyn et. al., 2020). However, in the last 30 years, research surrounding dissociative disorders has progressed significantly. The DSM-5 describes dissociation as a “discontinuity in the normal integration of consciousness, memory, identity, emotions, perception, body representation, motor control and behaviour” (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Through that definition emerges a disorder that can disrupt every area of the mind. In this article, I wish to outline all the important aspects of dissociative disorders that I believe need more awareness. What Are Dissociative Disorders? Dissociation is a disconnection between the physical and mental. It can be described as the separation between one’s thoughts, identities and memories. It is usually the brain’s brilliant way to overcome traumatic experiences by tolerating memories that would usually be too overwhelming. There are three main types of dissociative disorders: dissociative identity disorder, dissociative amnesia, and depersonalisation/derealisation disorder. (American Psychiatric Association, 2022) An example case of a dissociative disorder would include the case of Karen Overhill outlines dissociative identity disorder (Mirror, 2007). The trauma she underwent at a young age led to a dissociative identity disorder. Dissociative Amnesia Dissociative amnesia is the condition of not being able to recall information about oneself. It goes beyond just regular forgetting since amnesia is often related to a stressful event. There are three key types of amnesia. Localised (unable to remember an event or a specific period), selective (unable to remember a specific part of an event or some events over time), and generalised (complete loss of identity and life history). Dissociative amnesia is the brain's way of coping with experiences of childhood trauma. Depersonalisation/Derealisation Depersonalisation is described as the experience of detachment from your mind or body. It is as if one is witnessing their own life from a third person’s point of view. Derealisation is the experience of being detached from surroundings. These can be very distressing experiences, as the individual is fully aware that what they are feeling is unusual. Dissociative Identity Disorder DID is associated with traumatic events and/or abuse that an individual suffers in their childhood. The trauma leads to memory gaps from the amnesia, leading to the formation of distinct identities from different behaviour, memory and thinking. The majority of the people who develop dissociative disorders have experienced repetitive trauma in childhood. The aforementioned case of Karen Overhill falls under these symptoms. There is no clear limit on the ‘identities’ that can form, and some can be more overpowering than others (Mirror, 2007). Of all the stigma surrounding dissociation, DID is subject to the most stigma. Not only is this disorder stigmatised by the general public, but there is also a lot of professional stigma and clinical stigma surrounding it due to scepticism about its legitimacy (Gleaves and Reisinger, 2023). What Are the Possible Causes? As discussed before, dissociative disorders are often developed as a coping mechanism to catastrophic events and long-term stress, abuse or trauma (Mychailyszyn et. al., 2020). This is also true when trauma and high levels of stress have occurred in early childhood, as at that young age with a lack of stable support and resources, one mentally removes themselves from a traumatic situation as an escape. However, this becomes an issue once it begins to separate an individual from reality and creates memory gaps (Cleveland Clinic, 2022). How Does the Diagnosis Work? Dissociative disorders can be very distressing to live with and can lead to a lot of problems with functioning. In addition to this, one of the major downfalls in the clinical treatment of dissociative disorders is misdiagnosis. Specialised interventions have a positive response, but the misdiagnosis leads to further distress and poor quality of life. Thus, a strong assessment for diagnosis is crucial for clients. The most recent and relevant measure for dissociative disorders is done through a structured clinical interview for the DSM (SCID). The SCID for dissociative disorder is based on the DSM IV and it tests for five scales: amnesia, depersonalisation, derealisation, identity infusion, and identity alteration. Each scale ranges from a score of 1 to 4, and a higher score is an indication of higher and recurrent psychopathology. This means that a higher score indicates more distress to the individual. Overall, it was found the structured clinical interview addressed the five core dimensions of dissociation (Mychailyszyn et. al., 2020). A strength of this assessment strategy is that it goes beyond asking the client ‘yes’ and ‘no’ questions regarding their dissociation, nor does it simply give the client a rating scale of 1-4. The interview questions require the clients to elaborate on their experiences of dissociation and provide examples. This allows the clinicians to narrow down on the disorder, and rule out possible disorders that may have comorbidity with dissociation such as PTSD. Mychailyszyn et. al. (2020) conducted a meta-analysis on the SCID and studied the effect size over several cultures. It was found that overall, structured clinical interviews for dissociative disorders are currently the most reliable and valid form of assessment. What Are the PossibleTreatments? While dealing with dissociation, some of the skills to develop are interpersonal, emotional regulation and distress tolerance (Subhramanyam et. al., 2020). One of the main treatments is talking therapy such as: Cognitive behavioural therapy: A structured therapy to unlearn negative thoughts and behaviours. Dialectical Behaviour Therapy: A therapy adapted for emotionally charged clients. They work towards building skills in emotional regulation using validation (American Psychiatric Association, 2022). There are, additionally, self-help techniques to reduce symptoms involving grounding exercises (Quest 2021). The individual can focus on their breathing, naming ten things they can see around them, and be mindful of the physical feelings they feel. This can allow them to ground themselves in reality, and pull them out of their dissociation. While this may not work as a treatment solution, it helps the individual regulate and manage their symptoms on a regular basis (Quest, 2021). Conclusion In recent years, dissociative disorders have had significant research done. However, with the stigma that still surrounds this subject, there have been gaps in the literature (Mychailyszyn et. al., 2020). The professional stigma around dissociative disorders has had an impact on the way clinicians approach them (Gleaves and Reisinger, 2023). It is important to note that the presence of a dissociative disorder does not mandate a positive response. Oftentimes, people suffering from it get an overwhelmingly negative response. From the traumatic roots that this rare disorder is formed from, people need to have the proper knowledge and understanding of it. References American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders(5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.
American Psychiatric Association. (2022). What are dissociative disorders? https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/dissociative-disorders/what-are-dissociativedisorders Cleveland Clinic. (2022). Dissociative Disorders. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/17749-dissociative-disorders Gleaves, D. H. & Reisinger, B. A. (2023). Stigma Regarding Dissociative Disorders. Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 24(3). Pp. 317-320. https://doi-org.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/10.1080/15299732.2023.2191240 Mirror. (25 October, 2007). The woman who has 17 people living in her head. In: Mirror.co.uk [Internet]. Available at: https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/the-woman-who-has-17-people-living-516210 Mitra P, Jain A. (17 May, 2022). Dissociative Identity Disorder. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK568768/ Mychailyszyn, M.P., Brand, B.L., Webberman, A.R., Sar, V., Draijer, N. (2020). Differentiating Dissociative from Non-Dissociative Disorders: A Meta-Analysis of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM Dissociative Disorders (SCID-D). Journal of Trauma and Dissociation, 22(1), 19-34. https://doi-org.ezproxy.is.ed.ac.uk/10.1080/15299732.2020.1760169 Subramanyam, A. A., Somaiya, M., Shankar, S., Nasirabadi, M., Shah, H. R., Paul, I., & Ghildiyal, R. (2020). Psychological Interventions for Dissociative disorders. Indian journal of psychiatry, 62(2), S280–S289. https://doi.org/10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_777_19. Quest. (14 April, 2021). Dissociation & Trauma, How to reduce symptoms. In: Quest Psychology Services [Internet]. Available at: https://questpsychologyservices.co.uk/dissociation-Mtrauma-how-to-reduce-symptoms/ Written by Danielle Fuller The Understudied Psychodynamic Framework of the Enneagram Theoretical frameworks are rampant in psychology such as the Big Five Theory of Personality and Attachment Theory, each serving as a guide to understanding the individual differences and unconscious drivers that lead each of us to behave uniquely. None of these are perfect, and no one is suggesting there are strictly four types of people in the world categorised only by attachment. A framework is just that - a scaffolding that makes complex topics more accessible for consumption and discussion. One psychodynamic framework, the Enneagram, deserves more attention in the realm of psychology. Despite its (unfitting) reputation as a trendy pseudoscience, the Enneagram predates modern psychology, with roots dating back over two thousand years in various religions and studies (e.g., Judaism, Islam, Christianity, philosophy, mathematics, and metaphysics). At its core lies the basic principle of psychodynamics: understanding the psychological roots of emotional suffering (Shedler, 2010). In a world where academia is often inaccessible to the layperson – the very individuals whose lives we as psychologists are focused on bettering – we should prioritise frameworks that can not only be studied in the lab but understood and utilised by society for healing and self-growth. The Enneagram has an accessible foundation in place, and further research has the potential to usher it in as the newest addition to the psychodynamic therapist’s toolbox. What is the Enneagram? Composed of nine Types represented as One through Nine, the Enneagram is an integrated framework of personality that accounts for situational aspects of being such as self-awareness, mental health, and reactionary nuance in periods of stress and growth. These Types are arranged in an interconnected circle, each representing a generalised understanding of the world that drives that Type's desires, fears, and motivations. Underpinning each is an internalised childhood message about how they are valued by others:
How is the Enneagram Different From Other Personality Models? Unlike many personality frameworks focused on traits and situational behaviour (see: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, or MBTI), the Enneagram is rooted in motivation. To demonstrate why trait models are problematic, let’s consider the MBTI question “You do not usually initiate conversations,” meant to determine if the person is an ‘I’ (introvert) or an ‘E’ (extrovert). Would this answer change in the context of family life, with friends, with classmates, or with co-workers? Does your answer differ at your dream job versus a job you hate; if you’re feeling ill or healthy; if you’re surrounded by social butterflies or wallflowers? For some, responses vary dramatically based on mindset or environment. So how dependable can a singular test result be? This is a key difference for the Enneagram: those who study it in depth abhor testing for Type and advocate endlessly for self-exploratory identification. Just as no psychodynamic therapists rely on testing to determine how a client’s paternal relationship has shaped them in adulthood, the Enneagram is ill-suited for the simplicity of a Likert scale measuring outward patterns. Someone’s core will drive behaviours, but behaviours alone do not define someone’s core. This psychoanalytic approach to human understanding not only makes it difficult to objectively assign a Type, it also makes qualitative research extremely difficult. How do we, as scientists, study an individual’s true self when only they hold the key and it’s buried in their core? The State of Research: A Mixed yet Nearly-Empty Bag Enneagram research is limited and mixed yet has begun to grow in Western cultures. A systematic literature review by Hook et al. (2020) points out that factor analyses typically find fewer than nine types and cautions clinicians that scientific evidence is lacking. However, they also acknowledge its effectiveness for personal growth, which is backed by more recent research on the Enneagram’s psychodynamic utility for connecting the conscious and unconscious minds (Kam, 2022). Research also shows it to be an effective training tool for self-development in organisational settings (Sutton et al., 2013), teamwork and general learning in medical school cohorts (Blose, 2023), and the emotional intelligence of college student leaders (Weafer, 2021). Eastern cultures have found similarly promising findings, as a recent meta-analysis out of South Korea considered the effect Enneagram training had on parenting and found moderate-to-large effect sizes in all areas studied, the largest being 0.72 for coping with parental stress (Lee, 2023). A recent study highlighted the complexity of scientific Enneagram research. The study’s analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data revealed two radically different stories: while the latter showed no significant results, the qualitative data was rife with evidence of significant personal growth (Weafer, 2021). Yes, the study was a student thesis, but the underlying question remains: how do we resolve contradicting findings of the Enneagram’s qualitative benefit and quantitative insignificance? Arguing that factor analysis doesn’t support the Enneagram as a psychological tool disregards qualitative analysis as a valid research methodology; there is clearly a beneficial nature at play with the Enneagram, and it deserves more exploratory research to pinpoint exactly what that is. Enneagram: A Lexicon for Self-Expression Sometimes the key to effective communication of one’s deepest self isn’t a lack of self-understanding but lack of the proper words or models to do so. Kanzi, the bonobo who dialogues with humans using lexicons, lacks the ability to vocally communicate, yet was given the ability to express inner wants, needs, feelings, and emotions when provided with a wall of icons and a patient teacher. While he cannot say, “I’m sad,” he’s able to communicate the sentiment by pointing to something that conveys the thought for which he lacks words. We humans aren’t so dissimilar from Kanzi. We are notoriously poor at identifying our inner thoughts and feelings – even to ourselves. The journey to self-understanding is tough, and sometimes, like with Kanzi, pre-existing schemas we can point to and say, “That, right there, reflects the part of me I couldn’t otherwise articulate,” make all the difference. The Enneagram has the ability to be just that, going past surface-level behaviours and exposing the nuances of how our core worldviews impact all aspects of existence. Whether used in companies to build teams, in clinical settings to help patients identify deep-seeded realities of themselves, or in research to explore further than behaviourism alone allows, the Enneagram’s proven potential for human betterment merits a spot at the psychological table. References Blose, T. M., Yeates, A. C., Som, M, Murray, K. A., Vassar, M., & Stroup, J. (2023). The Enneagram and its application in medical education. Baylor University Medical Center Proceedings, 36(1), 54-58, https://doi.org/10.1080/08998280.2022.2132591 Hook, J. N., Hall, T. W., Davis, D. E., Van Tongeren, D. R., & Conner, M. K. (2021). The Enneagram: A systematic review of the literature and directions for future research. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 77(4), 865–883. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.23097 Kam, C. (2022). Enhancing Enneagram therapy with contemporary research on the conscious and unconscious mind. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-022-09685-5 Lee, N. (2023). A study on the effects of Enneagram parent education program through meta-analysis. Asia Couns. Coach, 5(1), 48-62. https://doi.org/10.47018/accr.2023.5.1.48 Shedler J. (2010). The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy. The American Psychologist, 65(2), 98–109. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018378 Sutton, A., Allinson, C., & Williams, H. M. (2013). Personality type and work-related outcomes: An exploratory application of the Enneagram model. European Management Journal, 31(3), 234–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2012.12.004 Weafer, D. (2021). Leadership, Emotional Intelligence, and the Enneagram: A Study of the Effects of Enneagram Training on College Student Leaders. TopSCHOLAR®. https://digitalcommons.wku.edu/stu_hon_theses/943 Written by Elia Müller Behavioural studies have shown that if pigeons are presented with a food source, that reliably provides them with pellets when they peck at the source, they will eventually grow accustomed to this and stop pecking. If, however, the food source releases pellets intermittently—in a way that seems random and unrelated to the amount of pecking—the pigeons peck relentlessly and do not grow bored or accustomed to the food source (Catania et al., 1977). This presents a unique question: Why do pigeons seem so enthralled by a food source that is less reliable? And, maybe more interestingly, what does this have to do with human psychology? Pigeons and humans alike are hardwired with pattern-seeking mechanisms that enable them to build mental models of the way the world works (though, obviously, humans have slightly more complex mental models than pigeons). These models help us predict what may happen in certain situations, allowing us to prepare our responses in advance. An example of this might be identifying a pattern of behaviour, such as your parent generally being more irritable on Mondays. Based on the pattern, you could predict that they will be more irritable on any given Monday, allowing you to adjust your behaviour to avoid getting into an argument. This pattern-finding ability was listed in Simon’s (1990) article titled “Invariants of Human Behavior”, where it was described as “an important component of human intelligence” (p. 10). So, given that it is so beneficial and natural for humans to find patterns, we might be able to understand why we become fascinated (and sometimes obsessed with or addicted to) situations or things that seem to be totally random—the apparent unpredictability provides our pattern-centric brains with a challenge that we refuse to abandon. In the following sections, I will explore further why unpredictable situations are so thrilling to us, specifically with reference to music and humour. I will also explore situations in which our fascination with unpredictability can be harmful, for example leading to addictions or harmful relationships with others. The Link Between Unpredictability and Enjoyment Without getting too technical about things, our learning process is linked with our brain’s reward system (which makes us feel contentment or enjoyment). We associate certain stimuli with desirable or positive outcomes (Lewis et al., 2021) and begin predicting that a positive outcome will occur when the stimulus is present. Then, even before we witness the outcome of the stimulus, our brain is rewarded for having made this prediction (Veissière & Stendel, 2018). This effect of pre-emptive rewards decreases when our predictions are reliably met, making things that are generally unpredictable (but not completely random) the most rewarding phenomena to the brain. Our brain keeps convincing itself that it is about to find a pattern every time it makes a correct prediction, which keeps it going through all the times it fails to predict what comes next. This tendency becomes interesting when you examine how pervasive unpredictability is in the things that entertain us. I have decided to demonstrate this using the example of jokes and music. Goatly (2017) has explained that what makes jokes funny is the violation of what is known as our “lexical priming”. Essentially, every time we hear a word, our brain activates a kind of mind map of that word and any concepts related to it. This helps us predict what someone might be about to say, again allowing us to prepare for what comes next. However, jokes are structured to intentionally go against our lexical priming. An example of this might be the following joke: Q: Which of the following words is the odd one out: greed, anger, malice, and depression? A: And Our expectation is violated because “and” is not a very meaningful word, so we were not “primed” to expect it as an answer to the question in the joke. What follows is the funny realisation that our prediction for the answer failed. This same phenomenon of unpredictable stimuli being enjoyable to us reappears in music. Gold et al. (2019) demonstrated that the most enjoyable pieces of music contain some degree of uncertainty, but only to the extent that we are able to form some sort of predictions about what might come next—fully random noise is hardly enjoyable. The Darker Aspects of Unpredictability: Addiction and Unhealthy Relationship Dynamics Unfortunately, our brain’s propensity to attempt to find patterns in unpredictable situations can lead to addictions that can upend people’s lives. An example of this is gambling addictions. Slot machines are designed to provide people with the equivalent of the pigeons’ unpredictable feeding machine. Just as the pigeons keep pecking, predicting that they might be rewarded with food, those addicted to gambling keep on pulling the lever of the slot machines, predicting that they might be rewarded with a win. Ladouceur (2004) reported that those with gambling issues even verbalised their insistence on being able to predict a win by saying things like, “The machine is due; I need to continue.” He elaborated that those addicted to gambling seem to have the incorrect belief that “the game’s outcome can be predicted and controlled” (p. 501). Perhaps an even more concerning area of our lives where we search for predictable patterns in unpredictable situations is our relationships with other people. Veissière and Stendel (2018) found that the type of reward promised in these types of unpredictable situations worsens our brain’s search for patterns: If our predictions succeed, the rewards are deeply social, as opposed to the money we are rewarded with in slot machines. Further, Veissière and Stendel emphasise that our need for human connections is an old evolutionary drive, and that this makes our need to predict the behaviour of others (even if it may be unpredictable) even more pressing. This means that having a relationship with a person whose behaviour is highly unpredictable can easily become addictive, because we 1) crave finding patterns where there are none, and 2) the stakes are raised by our desire to have interpersonal relationships. However, research suggests that “relational certainty” (essentially the opposite of having an unpredictable and volatile relationship) increased people’s happiness in their romantic relationships (Knobloch & Solomon, 2003). This presents us with a pressing dilemma that is tragically worsened by the way in which the media presents blueprints for relationships (especially romantic ones). I read through the plots of a random selection of movies from a list of the most highly rated romantic comedies in Hollywood (Bagusdriantama, 2013), and they contained many tropes that romanticise plotlines where characters frequently change their minds about their partners, leave steady partners for the sake of unreliable alternatives, and interrupt an endless amount of wedding ceremonies. How are we to opt for stable relationships when we become hooked on unpredictability, and this state of uncertainty is portrayed as the ideal by the media? Conclusion We have seen that our pattern-oriented minds are uniquely gripped by unpredictable data. This phenomenon both helps us understand various forms of entertainment—such as music and humour — as well as shedding light on darker aspects of the human experience—such as addiction and unstable relationships. The take-away I suggest would be simply to be aware of the situations that may entrap us, getting stuck searching for a pattern where there is none. We might thereby be able to avoid torturing ourselves, playing a guessing game over whether our emotionally unavailable friends or partners will act in a kind or distant manner. And lastly, make unexpected jokes! References Bagusdriantama, A. (2013, June 17). The best rom-com movies of all time. IMDb. https://www.imdb.com/list/ls053605210/ Catania, A. C., Matthews, T. J., Silverman, P. J., & Yohalem, R. (1977). Yoked variable-ratio and variable-interval responding in pigeons. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 28(2), 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.1977.28-155 Goatly, A. (2017). Lexical priming in humorous discourse. The European Journal of Humour Research, 5(1), 52–68. https://doi.org/10.7592/ejhr2017.5.1.goatly Gold, B. P., Pearce, M. T., Mas-Herrero, E., Dagher, A., & Zatorre, R. J. (2019). Predictability and uncertainty in the pleasure of music: A reward for learning? The Journal of Neuroscience, 39(47), 9397–9409. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.0428-19.2019 Knobloch, L. K., & Solomon, D. H. (2003). Responses to changes in relational uncertainty within dating relationships: Emotions and communication strategies. Communication Studies, 54(3), 282–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510970309363287 Ladouceur, R. (2004). Gambling: The hidden addiction. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 49(8), 501–503. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370404900801 Lewis, R. G., Florio, E., Punzo, D., & Borrelli, E. (2021). The brain’s reward system in health and disease. In Engmann, O. & Brancaccio, M. (Eds). Advances in experimental medicine and biology (Vol. 1344, pp. 57-69). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81147-1_4 Simon, H. A. (1990). Invariants of Human Behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 41(1), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.41.020190.000245 Veissière, S. P., & Stendel, M. (2018). Hypernatural Monitoring: A social rehearsal account of smartphone addiction. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00141 Written by Annie Tao. When we talk about our health, most people will think of our physical health. However, mental and physical health are equally important components of our overall wellbeing. Mental health is critical in life because it affects every aspect of our lives, from our relationships with others to our performance at work or school. However, many people struggle with mental health issues, such as anxiety, depression, and stress. One study showed that one in four people will experience a mental health problem of some kind each year in England (McManus et al., 2009). This can impact people’s ability to function effectively and enjoy life to the fullest. Fortunately, there are many ways to maintain good mental health, one of which is through physical exercise. In recent years, research has shown that exercise can have a positive impact on mental health, reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression, improving mood, and enhancing cognitive function (Sharma et al., 2006). This article will explore the link between exercise and mental health, specifically how physical activity can reduce anxiety, as well as provide tips for incorporating exercise into your daily routine. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), mental health is “a state of well-being in which the individual realises his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community” (Herrman et al., 2004). Maintaining good mental health is important in various aspects. For example, when mental and emotional states are in a positive state, people acquire a stronger ability to cope with life’s stressors (Calnan et al., 2001). Also, you might be more capable of managing healthier relationships with friends and family members (Braithwaite & Holt-Lunstad, 2017). Therefore, mental health is important since it can impact various positive aspects in our life. However, there are cases where people are suffering from mental disorders, such as anxiety. Mental disorders affect about one in four adults annually and become the leading cause of disability in the UK (Tham et al., 2022). Among many mental disorders, anxiety is the most frequently occurring one and can be defined as a feeling of unease, such as worry or fear, that can be mild or severe (Ströhle et al., 2018). Though we all feel anxious sometimes (e.g. before a final exam), anxiety may be a mental health problem if your feelings are too overwhelming to handle appropriately. Often, anxiety disorders involve repeated, sudden feelings of intense anxiety, fear or terror. Common causes of anxiety vary significantly depending on individuals, but some of them relate closely to one’s lifestyle, which could potentially include drug withdrawal, medical conditions and environmental stress (Batelaan et al., 2016). Overall, the impact of anxiety on mental health is striking and there are many factors to account for its emergence. Since anxiety disorders have various impacts on people’s lives, are there ways in which we can reduce their severity? It turns out that physical exercise can bring many physiological changes which result in a decrease in anxiety. A meta-analysis study of 42,264 people showed that exercise alleviated anxiety levels, with exercise being more beneficial to those with anxiety compared to those with non-clinical disorders (Wegner et al., 2014). The beneficial effects of exercise can be explained in its physiological mechanisms on mood states. Currently, there is no definitive conclusion on which mechanism is the most effective as there are different competing hypotheses. The endorphin hypothesis, the thermogenic hypothesis, and the destruction hypothesis are the main ones suggested to play a mechanistic role in altering mental states. According to the endorphin hypothesis, acute exercise can lead to improvements in mood and reductions in anxiety by causing the release of β-endorphins (natural opioids) which then bind to their receptor sites in the brain. Various studies have shown that exercise can increase the activity of natural opioids in both the central and peripheral nervous systems, potentially resulting in feelings of euphoria and decreased pain perception (Harber & Sutton, 1984; North et al., 1990). However, it is difficult to verify this hypothesis as research methods tend to be invasive and the experiment itself can impact the mood of participants. On the other hand, the thermogenic hypothesis proposes that exercise-induced increases in core body temperature could be a mechanism for reducing anxiety by decreasing muscular tension and modifying neuron activity (Raglin & Morgan, 1985). However, a few studies refuted this hypothesis by suggesting that the effect size of increased temperature is small (Youngstedt et al., 1993). Moreover, studies have actually found a positive correlation rather than an inverse one (Petruzzello et al., 1993; Reeves et al., 1985). This means that when researchers have experimentally manipulated changes in body temperature during exercise, they have observed increases in both body temperature and anxiety ratings, rather than a decrease in anxiety as might have been expected. Finally, the distraction hypothesis proposes that the mood-enhancing effect of exercise may be due more to mental factors, such as taking a mental break, rather than just physiological changes. Many people have experienced the benefits of distracting themselves from negative thoughts or feelings, and feeling better after a period of time not focusing on those anxious items. According to this hypothesis, exercise may similarly provide a welcome distraction that can contribute to a more positive mood state. This hypothesis can be dated back to 40 years ago, when Bahrke and Morgan (1978) assessed three groups given mental time-out. One group exercised, one group rested quietly in a chair and another group meditated in the same time period. All three groups showed a similar reduction in stress and anxiety. Thus, researchers concluded that the distraction hypothesis may explain the contribution of exercise to better health conditions (Bahrke & Morgan, 1978). With the shown benefit of exercise, there are several tips provided for those who are interested in incorporating exercise into their daily routine. A caveat of these practical tips is that everyone is different and there is no one-size-fits-all approach to exercise. The first tip is to start small. When you are new to exercise, start with a small amount of physical activity such as taking a short walk after meals (Freedman & Fraser, 1966). Second, it is important to set realistic goals that you can achieve, make a plan for your exercise routine and stick to it (Latham & Locke, 1979). Third, make it enjoyable enough to fit your lifestyle. If you don’t enjoy what you are doing, you are less likely to stick to it (Teixeira et al., 2012). In summary, incorporating exercise into your daily routine can have significant mental and physical health benefits, but it's important to find an exercise routine that works for you. In conclusion, maintaining good mental health is important in various aspects of life. Anxiety, one of the most commonly occurring mental disorders, can negatively impact daily life. Fortunately, exercise can reduce anxiety levels through various hypothesized mechanisms. Overall, exercise can have a positive impact on mental health, and incorporating it into daily routines is a great way to improve overall wellbeing. References Antunes, H. K. M., Leite, G. S. F., Lee, K. Y., Barreto, A. T., Santos, R. V. T. D., De Sá Souza, H., Tufik, S., & De Mello, M. T. (2016). Exercise deprivation increases negative mood in exercise-addicted subjects and modifies their biochemical markers. Physiology & Behavior, 156, 182–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.01.028 Bahrke, M. S., & Morgan, W. H. (1978). Anxiety reduction following exercise and meditation. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2(4), 323–333. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01172650 Batelaan, N. M., Seldenrijk, A., Bot, M., Van Balkom, A. J. L. M., & Penninx, B. W. (2016). Anxiety and new onset of cardiovascular disease: critical review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 208(3), 223–231. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.114.156554 Braithwaite, S. R., & Holt-Lunstad, J. (2017). Romantic relationships and mental health. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 120–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.001 Calnan, M. W., Wainwright, D., Forsythe, M., Wall, B., & Almond, S. (2001). Mental health and stress in the workplace: the case of general practice in the UK. Social Science & Medicine, 52(4), 499–507. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0277-9536(00)00155-6 Freedman, J. H., & Fraser, S. E. (1966). Compliance without pressure: The foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4(2), 195–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0023552 Harber, V. J., & Sutton, J. (1984). Endorphins and Exercise. Sports Medicine, 1(2), 154–171. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-198401020-00004 Herrman, H., Saxena, S. K., & Moodie, A. (2004). Promoting Mental Health: Concepts, Emerging Evidence, Practice - Summary Report. World Health Organization. Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (1979). Goal setting—A motivational technique that works. Organizational Dynamics, 8(2), 68–80. https://doi.org/10.1016/0090-2616(79)90032-9 McManus, S., Meltzer, H. Y., Brugha, T., Bebbington, P., & Jenkins, R. O. (2009). Adult Psychiatric Morbidity in England, 2007: Results of a Household Survey. The NHS Information Centre for Health and Social Care (2009). North, T. C., McCullagh, P., & Tran, Z. V. (1990). Effect of Exercise on Depression. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 18(1), 379-416. https://doi.org/10.1249/00003677-199001000-00016 Petruzzello, S. J., Landers, D. V., & Salazar, W. (1993). Exercise and Anxiety Reduction: Examination of Temperature as an Explanation for Affective Change. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.15.1.63 Raglin, J. S., & Morgan, W. H. (1985). Influence of vigorous exercise on mood state. Behavior Therapy. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1986-30693-001 Reeves, D., Levinson, D., Justesen, U. S., & Lubin, B. H. (1985). Endogenous hyperthermia in normal human subjects: experimental study of emotional states (II). International Journal of Psychosomatics : Official Publication of the International Psychosomatics Institute, 32(4), 18–23. Sharma, A., Madaan, V., & Petty, F. (2006). Exercise for Mental Health. Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 08(02), 106. https://doi.org/10.4088/pcc.v08n0208a Ströhle, A., Gensichen, J., & Domschke, K. (2018). The Diagnosis and Treatment of Anxiety Disorders. Deutsches Arzteblatt International. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2018.0611 Teixeira, P., Carraça, E. V., Markland, D., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9(1), 78. https://doi.org/10.1186/1479-5868-9-78 Tham, S., Lidbetter, N., Pedley, R., Smithson, D., Lukoseviciute, B., & Gooding, P. A. (2022). An evaluation of Anxiety UK’s psychological therapy service outcomes. Journal of Affective Disorders, 301, 478–485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2022.01.016 Wegner, M., Helmich, I., Machado, S. A., Nardi, A. E., Arias-Carrión, O., & Budde, H. (2014). Effects of Exercise on Anxiety and Depression Disorders: Review of Meta- Analyses and Neurobiological Mechanisms. Cns & Neurological Disorders-Drug Targets, 13(6), 1002–1014. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871527313666140612102841 Written by Hon Wing Huen (Vanessa) ‘So, you study psychology… do you know what I am thinking right now?’ This question pops up almost every time I introduce myself as a psychology student. This preconception of associating psychology with mind reading is not surprising – I went into psychology thinking that I would graduate with astonishing abilities to see through people’s thoughts and emotions, just to realise it is nothing like that. So, if a degree in psychology does not train students to become a mind reader, what is it actually about? Psychology, as defined by the American Psychological Association (n.d.), is a scientific study of the mind and behaviour. Therefore, instead of reading people’s minds in a single glance, psychology is more about understanding how the mind works. Its origin as a scientific discipline dates back to the 19th century when the German physiologist and philosopher, Wilhelm Wundt, distinguished psychology from philosophy. He wanted to investigate the human mind in a more logical and empirical way, introducing ‘introspection’ as an experimental method (Asthana, 2015), which involves participants observing and reporting their own inner thoughts (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006). Wundt believed that through introspection, he could break down consciousness into its simplest form, like breaking chemicals into smaller compounds, asserting that behaviour is built upon these compounds (McLeod, 2008). This claim, however, was highly criticised for its unreliability. As an individual’s inner mental state is intangible and cannot be physically observed, not only is the possibility of ‘introspectors’ reporting false observation data extremely high, but researchers would also have no way to falsify the obtained data (Schultz ,1981). Nowadays, many disciplines of psychology have been developed to explain different aspects of the human mind and behaviour. The main disciplines include developmental psychology, which studies the physical, mental, and behavioural changes in a person’s life from childhood to old age (American Psychological Association, n.d.) and social psychology, which focuses on how an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by the actual, imagined, or symbolically represented presence of other people (Allport, 1954). With increasing branches of the discipline, functions of the human brain were further explored, and we now realise that the brain is much more than just a single structure. Many other factors such as the environment in which one was brought up in, or the education that one received, all contribute to the uniqueness of an individual’s inner thoughts and behaviour. Child developmental psychology, for example, looks at common behaviours in children who are later diagnosed with mental health issues as well as moral understanding in children. One finding arising from this branch was that children that were in institutional care such as orphanages were found to have lower levels of intelligence then those who grew up in a normal family, for instance. These not only help psychologists understand the stages of growth in children, but also to develop more advanced mental health treatment and child-oriented policies, etc. As a psychology student, I spend most of my time learning about these different theories, past and new discoveries in various fields, and methodologies to conduct research. The stereotypical psychologist might be portrayed as an expert reader of micro-expressions and body language, especially those portrayed in TV shows and movies. But in reality, these domains are not common topics taught in school. Although these might fall under the category of behavioural psychology, what interest researchers the most are behaviours that are easily observable, macro-expressions. Nevertheless, it is always possible to do further research into your own area of interest once you get a hold of the basics. All in all, it is evident that psychologists are not magicians who can read minds like those shown on the big screens. Instead, psychologists are sensitive to smaller changes in behaviour and emotions and take them as clues for further investigation through communication to fully understand a person. Psychology as a discipline is more about theories of how the mind works and their practical implications. Therefore, if you are looking into studying psychology, be sure to do ample research on psychological theories and degree curricula from different universities to make sure that this is a field that truly intrigues your mind! References Allport, G. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Addison-Wesley. American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/psychology American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Developmental psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/developmental-psychology Asthana, H. S. (2015). Wilhelm Wundt. Psychological Studies, 60(2), 244-248. 10.1007/s12646-014-0295-1 McLeod, S. A. (2008). Wilhelm Wundt. Simply Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/wundt.html Mcleod, S. A. (n.d.). Developmental Psychology. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/developmental-psychology.html Schultz, D. (1981). A history of modern psychology (3rd ed). Academic Press. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. (2006, June 16). Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-wundt/ Written by Darragh Akhtar
What is DP/DR? Depersonalisation/Derealisation also known as DP/DR is described in the DSM-5 as a dissociative disorder affecting 1% of the population. Depersonalisation is a feeling of being detached from oneself or body, not feeling physically real, and derealisation is the perception of your surroundings being dream-like, feeling animate or inanimate. Both can occur individually or simultaneously, and episodes of DP/DR can last minutes, hours, days, weeks, and even years. DP/DR is often comorbid with mental illnesses such as anxiety, depression, and PTSD and often begins in early childhood even if we do not notice it at the time, this is often triggered by a traumatic or anxiety-inducing experience that our younger selves cannot handle. This is a complicated disorder as it is often misunderstood by doctors and even other mental health professionals making the symptoms more distressing than they should have been. DP/DR involves the nervous system, the autonomous nervous system (ANS). This is trying to protect us from potential danger, activating the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system’s fight/flight/freeze response. DP/DR, however, is triggered by the freeze response when we are hypo aroused. This response is common for example, for those who experienced something traumatic as children with a lack of protection or nurturing from the caregiver giving them no choice but to freeze or dissociate to protect themselves. As scary as DP/DR can be, it’s just our brains trying to protect us. Acceptance is the best medicine; this took me a long time but as much as it still frightens me Sometimes, I am aware it is just my brain trying to protect me from potential triggers. The main reason DP/DR can become chronic is that we are stuck in this freeze response and have a dysregulated nervous system. A lot of people fear they are experiencing psychosis but if that were the case you usually would not be aware of it at first. What causes DP/DR? The ‘main cause’ of DP/DR is undoubtedly trauma, but many people worry that it was their fault. Although it is not our fault, certain things can trigger an episode. When you read stories online, which I do not recommend as it makes the obsession worse, and I have been guilty of this, I find the most common trigger tends to be recreational drugs such as cannabis or LSD. Weed did not do this to you, and I know the feeling and guilt of “if I didn't do that edible that one time and have that panic attack this would never have happened’’ but the panic attack triggered your freeze response. Bad trips can be traumatizing, leaving your nervous system messed up putting up the glass jar you once needed when you were little to survive this scary world. The dissociation was there before the bad trip, but you may have not noticed it as much. I have noticed a pattern. While it is difficult to pinpoint the childhood experience that first caused me to dissociate. All I know is I was very shy and was struggling with undiagnosed ADHD for the first nineteen years of my life, but I do remember certain frightening or traumatic experiences in my life that made the world look extra dream like. When I was fourteen, I witnessed the Manchester arena bombing; it was a very surreal experience and everything was in slow motion, this was my freeze response kicking in. When I found out my dad had cancer and I heard my little sister sobbing in her room, I stared at a wall wondering if I was human and when my dad died of cancer in his bedroom next to mine my first reaction was “oh.” I can feel the pain in my body, but I find with DP/DR, I often struggle to cry because I know my body cannot emotionally handle the pain. Other triggers for DP/DR can be stress, certain medications, caffeine, alcohol, sugar, and lack of sleep. Treatment I think the most common fear for DP/DR is ‘what if this does not go away?’ I have experienced chronic DP/DR for the past two years after withdrawing from propranolol, a beta blocker that is supposed to help with anxiety. The first few months were terrifying like I was drowning but could not seem to die, the existential worries were like nothing I had ever experienced before, the artificial lighting in supermarkets and work was extremely painful, and I would wear sunglasses most of the time and would often sit in the dark it was awful and I truly feel for anyone going through the same thing, it made me very depressed for months. Not only do you feel chronically unreal, but you also cannot completely feel present, feeling stuck in a fake world, the past or the future. Now I truly believe that the worst part of DP/DR is the obsession. Although I still have it, it is not as bad because I am not obsessed. I may even go to the extreme to say I do not care that much about it anymore. . For me, therapy, and grounding techniques such as yoga and meditation helped a lot. This helps to regulate the nervous system and make us feel more connected to our bodies and surroundings, but this takes patience and practice. I also take a fluoxetine known as Prozac, an antidepressant that has not made it go away but has helped with the anxiety and depression that comes with the disorder. There is no recognized psychological treatment so far. There are case reports describing successful treatment using psychoanalytic therapy (Torch 1987), cognitive behavioural therapy (Sookman & Solyom, 1978), and directive therapy (Blue 1979). Eating healthy, exercising, cutting out alcohol, avoiding drugs, taking supplements and self-care can help with cortisol and stress levels which help to reduce anxiety and depression symptoms. Another more abstract yet expensive treatment is called repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a ‘non-invasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of mental illness.’ TMS is typically used when other treatments have not been effective. Evidence shows it has proven. effective in decreasing symptoms in patients with DP/DR. In conclusion, we can see that advancements in the research of DP/DR are being made with further research on the effectiveness of grounding techniques and the use of TMS. I hope that these advancements will lead to a positive outcome in terms of lessening one's symptoms of DP/DR or even finding a cure. Anyone who suffers from DP/DR must not suffer alone and it is okay to ask for help. Simeon, D. (2014). Depersonalization/derealization disorder. Gabbard’s treatments of psychiatric disorders, 459-469. Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. (2017, May 16). Depersonalization-derealization disorder. Mayo Clinic. Retrieved December 8, 2022, from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/depersonalization-derealization-disorder/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20352916 G, S. (2020, January 8). Retrieved December 8, 2022, from https://www.nami.org/Blogs/NAMI-Blog/January-2020/A-Blueprint-to-Healing-From-Depersonalization. Gentile, J. P., Snyder, M., & Gillig, P. M. (2014). Stress and trauma: Psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy for depersonalization/derealization disorder. Innovations in Clinical Neuroscience, 11(7-8), 37. Sedeño, L., Couto, B., Melloni, M., Canales-Johnson, A., Yoris, A., Baez, S., ... & Ibanez, A. (2014). How do you feel when you can't feel your body? Interoception, functional connectivity and emotional processing in depersonalization-derealization disorder. PloS one, 9(6), e98769. Der kolk, B. van. (2015). The body keeps the score. IDreamBooks Inc. Klix, K. (2009). Stop unreality a guide to conquering depersonalisation, derealisation, Dpd, anxiety & depression (second). Sarkar, J., Jones, N., & Sullivan, G. (2001). A case of depersonalization–derealization syndrome during treatment with quetiapine. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 15(3), 209-211. King, C. D., Hill, S. B., Wolff, J. D., Bigony, C. E., Winternitz, S., Ressler, K. J., ... & Lebois, L. A. (2020). Childhood maltreatment type and severity predict depersonalization and derealization in treatment-seeking women with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychiatry research, 292, 113301. Jay, E. L., Sierra, M., Van den Eynde, F., Rothwell, J. C., & David, A. S. (2014). Testing a neurobiological model of depersonalization disorder using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain stimulation, 7(2), 252-259. Written by Lea Satala
H’Doubler (1940) has described dance as an “aesthetic experience, and a creative process, through which the body, brain, and personality combine to express and communicate thoughts and feelings” (p.4). This short definition highlightsjust how complex the activity of dancing is: It involves our feelings, is personality-dependent, is used to communicate, has aesthetic value and involves our body. While dance formally belongs to the art sector, it is unique because it is expressed with the human body. Dancers have been referred to as “performing athletes” (Koutedakis & Jamurtas, 2004)since they must master both creative aspects, like technique, style, tradition, and expression, while also controlling their physicality. Dance has increasingly become an area of interest for psychologists and cognitive neuroscientists. Disciplines such as Performance Psychology and Dance Science are rapidly evolving and the study of the benefits of dancing and its clinical value has become an important area of research. In this article, I will discuss how dance has been understood through the lenses of cognitive, clinical and personality psychology, as well as present evidence for how dance influences people beyond the artistic domain. How can Dance Tell Us More About our Brain and Ourselves? If you ever had the chance to take a professional dance class, you probably noticed that the difficulty was usually not the movement, but the pace. How can professional ballet dancers repeat a whole section of exercises after being shown them just once? How are dancers able to remember a repertoire of complex movements in a short time? To add another layer of complexity, have you ever wondered how it is possible that a group of dancers can synchronise, even whilstimprovising? The complex nature of dance is reflected in the way our brains work since it involves a multitude of cognitive mechanisms such as working memory, implicit learning, motor learning, pace perception, selective attention, emotion perception and creative thinking. Studying dance has helped us to understand the neural networks underlying visual action and body perception. For example, it has been shown that dancing has an impact on our brain structure - professional dancers show anatomical differences in the brain structures involved in motor control processes (Hänggi et al., 2010). Dance has frequently been called a language. The metaphor of dance being a language of the soul, the language of emotions or a way of “communicating what words cannot”is widespread. We all know that body language is an established way of communication, nevertheless treating dance as a universal language is an interesting point of view. There seems to be an unexplainable agreement betweendancers on stage, like they could “feel” their thoughts and act as one organism. Clayton and Wilkins (2013), researchers from Cambridge, called this a communication without words. It may be claimed that dance surpasses individual and cultural differences, creating an organic way of communicating through the body. Furthermore, dance can be seen as a way of expressing oneself, the soul, and our emotions. The need for self-expression relates to personality. Research conducted by Bakker (1991) suggests that the “typical personality profile of a dancer” (p.673), classical and modern ballet specifically, is introversion combined with high scores on emotionality and achievement motivation. Additionally, one can look at dance as a tool for shaping personality. Some claim that successful dancers, like other athletes, have a specific personality trait called “grit”, which is a “trait characterised by perseverance and passion for achieving long-term goals” (Duckworth et al., 2007, p.1087). Dancing may also help build resilience. There is no strong evidence for this so far, yet dancers are believed to be less anxious and depressed (Bakker, 1991). How is Dance Used in Clinical Settings? Dance is becoming increasingly important in clinical settings as a tool for the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (Rose et al., 2020). McKinley et al. (2008) were the first to show that dance could have health benefits for elderly individuals. Their study was conducted byrandomly assigning seniors to either walking classes or tango classes. The tango class participants showed greater improvements in strength, balance, and walking speed than walking class participants. However, the biggest breakthrough in dance intervention is connected to Parkinson’s Disease (PD). Parkinson´s Disease is a brain disorder with symptoms including shaking (tremors), slow and stiff movements, difficulty walking, balance, coordination and depression(National Health Service, 2022). Its cause remains unclear and there is currently no cure for it. However, dance helps people affected by Parkinson’s Disease both on a socio-emotional and physical level. On the emotional level, dance releases stress, helps with building a community, thus decreasing loneliness, and creates a sense of joy and achievement. The social aspect is particularly important since it increases subjective well-being (Houston & McGill, 2013). A meta-analysis has shown that dance therapy, compared to no intervention or other exercise-based interventions, had better results in increasing quality of life (Sharp & Hewitt, 2014). On the physical level, dance intervention helps with increasing confidence, as well as strength, quality of movement, body coordination and functional mobility (Houston & McGill, 2013). In fact, dance therapies for PD are very common nowadays due to their positive effects. Parkinson’s Disease is not the only neurodegenerative disorder shown to benefit from dance practice. Researchsuggests that dementia patients also benefit from dance, possibly even preventing dementia (Karkou & Meekums, 2017). Moreover, dance can also be used as therapy for depression, schizophrenia, stroke patients or trauma. The American Dance Therapy Association defines dance therapy as “the psychotherapeutic use of movement to further the emotional, cognitive, physical, and social integration of the individual” (American Dance Therapy Association, 2022). One key underlying concept underlying any form of dance therapy is kinesthetic empathy. This is defined as “an empathetic interaction between performer and viewer that embodies aspects of the performer’s movement” (Rosenberg & Wood, 2016, p.245) meaning that empathy is experienced just by watching the movements of another person, which is facilitated by emotion and imagination. What is the Connection Between Dance and Mental Health? From the existing evidence, it can be argued that dance is outstanding for mental health. Firstly, as with the benefits of dance for PD, dance helps to find a community and build meaningful human connections. Secondly, dance can be seen as a form of a higher cognitive state. While dancing, the individual needs to be present and focused, ultimatelyreducing mind-wandering and anxiety. Additionally, during dance one can experience flow, which can bring feelings of fulfilment and happiness (Csikszentmihalyi, 2008). Dance is a prominent field of research for flow experience, as it is imaginative and requires the participants to create an alternative world, making them lose their self-consciousness and sense of time (Biasutti, 2011). Additionally, dancers unify through the activity of performance while on stage, which is a source of the unexplainable feeling of “flow”. Nevertheless, recently the “darker side of dance”, especially in professional dance, has been a research focus. Bakker’s (1991) research on the personality of dancers showed that dancers express less favourable self-attitudes compared to non-dancers. This may be caused by the critical atmosphere regarding body image in the dance industry, especially ballet. Some research indicates that dancers, as well as other athletes, are characterised by extremelyperfectionistic personalities (Eusanio et al., 2014). This is a paradox, as on one hand perfectionism drives dancers to achieve excellence, yet it leads to fear of failure which can lead to depression and injuries (Flett & Hewitt, 2005). Final thoughts The psychology of dance is a multidimensional field, which finds applications in cognitive, clinical and personality psychology. Dance may help those suffering from brain disorders and can increase the well-being of individuals. The founder of dance theatre genre, Pina Bausch, once famously said “dance, dance, otherwise we are lost”. Dance, evolving long before humans learned to use spoken language, is a way of creating order from the disorganised pieces of our lives, a way of developing character, creating meaningful connections with others and a way of achieving higher levels of consciousness. Today’s advances in technology and psychological knowledge allow us to unveil the mysteries behind this fundamental part of life. It does not matter if you are a professional dancer, occasional discotheque visitor or a person affected by Parkinson’s Disease, dance is a powerful force affecting our brains and lives. References American Dance Therapy Association. (2022). What is Dance/Movement Therapy?. https://adta.memberclicks.net/what-is-dancemovement-therapy#:~:text=Dance%2Fmovement%20therapy%20(DMT)%20is%20defined%20by%20the%20American,improving%20health%20and%20well%2Dbeing. Bakker, F. (1991). Development of personality in dancers: A longitudinal study. Personality And Individual Differences, 12(7), 671-681. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(91)90222-w Biasutti, M. (2011). Flow and Optimal Experience. Encyclopedia Of Creativity, 522-528. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-375038-9.00099-6 Clayton, N., & Wilkins, C. (2013). Conversation Without Words: Nicky Clayton & Clive Wilkins at TEDxOxbridge . YouTube. TEDxOxbridge. Retrieved February 14, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-iavquY2OFo. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2008). Flow. Harper Perennial Modern Classics. Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087 Eusanio, J., Thomson, P., & Jaque, S. (2014). Perfectionism, shame, and self-concept in dancers: A mediation analysis. Journal Of Dance Medicine & Science, 18(3), 106-114. https://doi.org/10.12678/1089-313x.18.3.106 Flett, G., & Hewitt, P. (2005). The perils of perfectionism in sports and exercise. Current Directions In Psychological Science, 14(1), 14-18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963-7214.2005.00326.x Hänggi, J., Koeneke, S., Bezzola, L., & Jäncke, L. (2010). Structural neuroplasticity in the sensorimotor network of professional female ballet dancers. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 1196 –1206. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1002/hbm.20928 H’Doubler, M. (1940). Dance: A creative art experience. Appleton-Century Crofts. Houston, S., & McGill, A. (2013). A mixed-methods study into ballet for people living with Parkinson's. Arts & Health, 5(2), 103-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/17533015.2012.745580 Karkou, V., & Meekums, B. (2017). Dance movement therapy for dementia. Cochrane Database Of Systematic Reviews, 2(2), Article CD011022. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd011022.pub2 Koutedakis, Y., & Jamurtas, A. (2004). The dancer as a performing athlete. Sports Medicine, 34, 651–661. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200434100-00003 McKinley, P., Jacobson, A., Leroux, A., Bednarczyk, V., Rossignol, M., & Fung, J. (2008). Effect of a community-based argentine tango dance program on functional balance and confidence in older adults. Journal Of Aging And Physical Activity, 16(4), 435-453. https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.16.4.435 National Health Service. (2022). Parkinson's disease. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/parkinsons-disease/#symptoms. Rose, D., Müllensiefen, D., Lovatt, P., & Orgs, G. (2020). The Goldsmiths Dance Sophistication Index (Gold-DSI): A psychometric tool to assess individual differences in dance experience. Psychology Of Aesthetics, Creativity, And The Arts. https://doi.org/10.1037/aca0000340 Rosenberg, D., & Wood, K. (2016). Kinesthetic Empathy. In The Oxford Handbook of Screendance Studies (pp. 245–262). essay, Oxford University Press. Sharp, K., & Hewitt, J. (2014). Dance as an intervention for people with Parkinson's disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 445-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.009v by anushka varmaHow many of us have heard or said the phrase “I’m not like other girls”? Often uttered in a condescending or disparaging manner, it is one so widely used that it is ever-present on the Internet whether through TikTok or memes mocking or reinforcing it, but where does it come from?
by hai tranMood-congruency memory retrieval is a phenomenon where people are more likely to recall information that shares the same valence as their concurrent emotional state (Eysenck & Keane, 2020; Groome et al., 2014). In other words, when we are in a negative mood, we tend to remember predominantly negative memories. The reverse is applied when we feel positive. Studies on mood-congruency effect (e.g., Holland & Kensinger, 2010) are critical to the understanding of cognitive distortions in depressed individuals, who tend to ruminate on negative autobiographical episodic memories (Disner et al., 2011), which are memories of personal life events (Holland & Kensinger, 2010). This article will explore research on this phenomenon and show that mood-congruent memory in response to depressed mood is a reliable phenomenon, yet it is moderated/influenced) by several factors.
|